Active metal fuel cells

ABSTRACT

Active metal fuel cells are provided. An active metal fuel cell has a renewable active metal (e.g., lithium) anode and a cathode structure that includes an electronically conductive component (e.g., a porous metal or alloy), an ionically conductive component (e.g., an electrolyte), and a fluid oxidant (e.g., air, water or a peroxide or other aqueous solution). The pairing of an active metal anode with a cathode oxidant in a fuel cell is enabled by an ionically conductive protective membrane on the surface of the anode facing the cathode.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/529,825 filed Dec. 15, 2003, titled ACTIVE METAL FUEL CELLS; and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/518,948 filed Nov. 10, 2003, titled BI-FUNCTIONALLY COMPATIBLE IONICALLY CONDUCTIVE COMPOSITES FOR ISOLATION OF ACTIVE METAL ELECTRODES IN A VARIETY OF ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS AND SYSTEMS; the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety and for all purposes.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Field of the Invention

The present invention relates generally to active metal electrochemical devices. More particularly, this invention relates to active metal (e.g., lithium) fuel cells made possible by active metal electrode structures having ionically conductive membranes for protection of the active metal from deleterious reaction with air, moisture and other fuel cell components, methods for their fabrication and applications for their use.

2. Description of Related Art

In recent years, much attention has been given to hydrogen and/or fossil fuel based fuel cells. A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that continuously changes the chemical energy of a fuel (e.g., hydrogen) and an oxidant (e.g., oxygen in air or water) directly to electrical energy, without combustion. Fuel atoms give up their electrons in the process. Like a battery a fuel cell has electrodes and electrolyte. However, while a battery stores energy, a fuel cell generates it from fuel and oxidant supplied to the electrodes during operation. In a hydrogen fuel cell, oxygen is typically supplied to the oxygen electrode (cathode; electrode to which cations migrate) from ambient air, and the hydrogen fuel is supplied to the fuel electrode (anode) either from a pressurized cylinder or from a metal hydride forming alloy. Fossil fuel based fuel cell systems extract the required hydrogen from hydrocarbons, such as methane or methanol.

Active metals are highly reactive in ambient conditions and can benefit from a barrier layer when used as electrodes. They are generally alkali metals such (e.g., lithium, sodium or potassium), alkaline earth metals (e.g., calcium or magnesium), and/or certain transitional metals (e.g., zinc), and/or alloys of two or more of these. The following active metals may be used: alkali metals (e.g., Li, Na, K), alkaline earth metals (e.g., Ca, Mg, Ba), or binary or ternary alkali metal alloys with Ca, Mg, Sn, Ag, Zn, Bi, Al, Cd, Ga, In. Preferred alloys include lithium aluminum alloys, lithium silicon alloys, lithium tin alloys, lithium silver alloys, and sodium lead alloys (e.g., Na₄Pb). A preferred active metal electrode is composed of lithium.

The low equivalent weight of alkali metals, such as lithium, render them particularly attractive as electrode materials. Lithium provides greater energy per volume than the traditional hydrogen fuel or fossil fuel fuel cell standards. However, it has not previously been possible to leverage the advantages of lithium and other alkali or other active metals in fuel cells. Previously, there was no way to isolate the highly reactive anode alkali metal fuel from the cathode oxidant while maintaining a path for the alkali metal ions.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates generally to active metal electrochemical devices. More particularly, this invention relates to active metal fuel cells.

The present invention provides an active metal fuel cell. The fuel cell has a renewable active metal (e.g., lithium) anode and a cathode structure that includes an electronically conductive component (e.g., a porous metal or alloy), an ionically conductive component (e.g., an electrolyte), and a fluid oxidant (e.g., air, water or a peroxide or other aqueous solution). The pairing of an active metal anode with a cathode oxidant in a fuel cell is enabled by an ionically conductive protective membrane on the surface of the anode facing the cathode.

In one aspect, the invention pertains to a fuel cell. The fuel cell includes a renewable active metal anode and a cathode structure that includes an electronically conductive component, an ionically conductive component, and a fluid oxidant. An ionically conductive protective membrane is provided on the surface of the anode facing the cathode. The membrane is composed of one or more materials configured to provide a first surface chemically compatible with the active metal of the anode in contact with the anode, and a second surface substantially impervious to and chemically compatible with the cathode structure and in contact with the cathode structure.

The active metal anode is renewable in that it is configured for replacement or supplementation of the active metal to provide a fuel supply for continuous operation of the fuel cell for as long as desired. It may be in the solid or liquid phase.

The cathode structure includes an electronically conductive component (e.g., a porous metal or alloy), an ionically conductive component (e.g., an electrolyte), and a fluid oxidant (e.g., air, water or a peroxide or other aqueous solution). Advantageously, the cathode structure may include fluid oxidants that are obtained for the fuel cell's operating environment, such as air or fresh or salt water.

Furthermore, in some embodiments, the active metal fuel cell can be coupled with a PEM H₂/O₂ fuel cell to capture and use the hydrogen released, and further improve the energy density and fuel efficiency of the system.

These and other features of the invention are further described and exemplified in the detailed description below.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1A is a schematic illustration of an active metal anode structure incorporating an ionically conductive protective laminate composite membrane in accordance with the present invention.

FIG. 1B is a schematic illustration of an active metal anode structure incorporating an ionically conductive protective graded composite membrane in accordance with the present invention.

FIG. 2 illustrates a solid phase anode embodiment of an active metal fuel cell in accordance with the present invention.

FIG. 3 illustrates a liquid phase anode embodiment of an active metal fuel cell in accordance with the present invention.

FIG. 4 illustrates a Li/water fuel cell and hydrogen generator for a PEM fuel cell in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SPECIFIC EMBODIMENTS

Reference will now be made in detail to specific embodiments of the invention. Examples of the specific embodiments are illustrated in the accompanying drawings. While the invention will be described in conjunction with these specific embodiments, it will be understood that it is not intended to limit the invention to such specific embodiments. On the contrary, it is intended to cover alternatives, modifications, and equivalents as may be included within the spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims. In the following description, numerous specific details are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of the present invention. The present invention may be practiced without some or all of these specific details. In other instances, well known process operations have not been described in detail in order not to unnecessarily obscure the present invention.

When used in combination with “comprising,” “a method comprising,” “a device comprising” or similar language in this specification and the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural reference unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood to one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs.

Introduction

The present invention provides an active metal fuel cell. The fuel cell has a renewable active metal (e.g., lithium) anode and a cathode structure that includes an electronically conductive component (e.g., a porous metal or alloy), an ionically conductive component (e.g., an electrolyte), and a fluid oxidant (e.g., air, water or a peroxide or other aqueous solution). The pairing of an active metal anode with a cathode oxidant in a fuel cell is enabled by an ionically conductive protective membrane on the surface of the anode facing the cathode. The membrane is composed of one or more materials configured to provide a first surface chemically compatible with the active metal of the anode in contact with the anode, and a second surface substantially impervious to and chemically compatible with the cathode structure and in contact with the cathode structure.

The active metal anode is renewable in that it is configured for replacement or supplementation of the active metal to provide a fuel supply for continuous operation of the fuel cell for as long as desired. For example, prior to or during operation of the fuel cell, additional lithium, for example, may be added to the anode by contacting the existing lithium of the anode with additional lithium having a bond coat such as a thin layer of Ag, Al, Sn or other suitable Li alloy-forming metal in an inert environment. The new Li/Ag alloys to the old thereby supplementing it or “replacing” it as it is depleted in the fuel cell redox reaction with the cathode oxidant. Alternatively, the active metal fuel of the anode could be continuously supplied to the membrane by virtue of it being dissolved in a suitable solvent, such as, in the case of lithium, hexamethyl phosphoramide (HMPA), ammonia, organic amides, amines, or other suitable solvents.

The cathode structure includes an electronically conductive component (e.g., a porous metal or alloy), an ionically conductive component (e.g., an electrolyte), and a fluid oxidant in the gas or liquid state (e.g., air, water or a peroxide, such as hydrogen peroxide, or other aqueous solution). Like the fuel of the anode, the oxidant of the cathode may be continuously supplemented and the waste products removed by flushing fresh oxidant and optionally electrolyte through the cathode structure.

Furthermore, in some embodiments, the active metal fuel cell can be coupled with a PEM H₂/O₂ fuel cell to capture and use the hydrogen released, and further improve the energy density and fuel efficiency of the system.

Protective Membranes

The present invention concerns alkali (or other active) metal fuel cells and electrochemical cells incorporating them. The fuel cell fuel electrode (anode) has a highly ionically conductive (at least about 10⁻⁵ S/cm to 10⁻⁴ S/cm, and as high as 10⁻³ S/cm or higher) protective membrane adjacent to the alkali metal electrode that effectively isolates (de-couples) the alkali metal electrode from solvent, electrolyte processing and/or cathode environments, including such environments that are normally highly corrosive to Li or other active metals, and at the same time allows ion transport in and out of these potentially corrosive environments. The protective membrane is thus chemically compatible with active metal (e.g., lithium) on one side and a wide array of materials, including those including those that are normally highly corrosive to Li or other active metals on the other side, while at the same time allowing ion transport from one side to the other. In this way, a great degree of flexibility is permitted the other components of an electrochemical device, such as a fuel cell, made with the protected active metal electrodes. Isolation of the anode from other components of a fuel cell or other electrochemical cell in this way allows the use of virtually any solvent, electrolyte and/or cathode material in conjunction with the anode. Also, optimization of electrolytes or cathode-side solvent systems may be done without impacting anode stability or performance.

In a specific embodiment, the protective membrane is composed of at least two components of different materials having different chemical compatibility requirements. By “chemical compatibility” (or “chemically compatible”) it is meant that the referenced material does not react to form a product that is deleterious to fuel cell operation when contacted with one or more other referenced fuel cell components or manufacturing, handling or storage conditions.

A first material component of the composite is ionically conductive, and chemically compatible with an active metal electrode material. Chemical compatibility in this aspect of the invention refers both to a material that is chemically stable and therefore substantially unreactive when contacted with an active metal electrode material. It may also refer to a material that is chemically stable with air, to facilitate storage and handling, and reactive when contacted with an active metal electrode material to produce a product that is chemically stable against the active metal electrode material and has the desirable ionic conductivity (i.e., a first component material). Such a reactive material is sometimes referred to as a “precursor” material.

A second material component of the composite is substantially impervious, ionically conductive and chemically compatible with the first material component and the environment of the cathode paired with the anode. In the case of a fuel cell, the cathode environment is a cathode structure that includes an electronically conductive component (e.g., a porous metal or alloy), an ionically conductive component (e.g., an electrolyte), and a fluid oxidant (e.g., air, water or a peroxide or other aqueous solution). By substantially impervious it is meant that the material provides a sufficient barrier to aqueous electrolytes and solvents and other fuel cell component materials that would be damaging to the active metal anode material to prevent any such damage that would degrade anode performance from occurring. Thus, it should be non-swellable and free of pores, defects, and any pathways allowing air, moisture, electrolyte, etc. to penetrate though it to the first material. Additional components are possible to achieve these aims, or otherwise enhance electrode stability or performance. All components of the composite have high ionic conductivity, at least 10⁻⁷ S/cm, generally at least 10⁻⁶ S/cm, for example at least 10⁻⁵ S/cm to 10⁻⁴ S/cm, and as high as 10⁻³ S/cm or higher so that the overall ionic conductivity of the multi-component protective structure is at least 10⁻⁵ S/cm and as high as 10⁻³ S/cm or higher.

A protective composite in accordance with the present invention may be a laminate of two (or more) layers having different chemical compatibility. A wide variety of materials may be used in fabricating protective composites in accordance with the present invention, consistent with the principles described above. For example, a first layer of a composite laminate, in contact with the active metal, may be composed, in whole or in part, of active metal nitrides, active metal phosphides, active metal halides or active metal phosphorus oxynitride-based glass. Specific examples include Li₃N, Li₃P, LiI, LiBr, LiCl, LiF and LiPON. These materials may be preformed and contacted with the active metal electrode, or they may be formed in situ by contacting the active metal (e.g., lithium) with precursors such as metal nitrides, metal phosphides, metal halides, red phosphorus, iodine, nitrogen or phosphorus containing organics and polymers, and the like. The in situ formation of the first layer may result from an incomplete conversion of the precursors to their lithiated analog. Nevertheless, such incomplete conversions meet the requirements of a first layer material for a protective composite in accordance with the present invention and are therefore within the scope of the invention.

A second layer of the protective composite may be composed of a material that is substantially impervious, ionically conductive and chemically compatible with the first material or precursor and the cathode structure, such as glassy or amorphous metal ion conductors, ceramic active metal ion conductors, and glass-ceramic active metal ion conductors. Such suitable materials are substantially gap-free, non-swellable and are inherently ionically conductive. That is, they do not depend on the presence of a liquid electrolyte or other agent for their ionically conductive properties. Glassy or amorphous metal ion conductors, such as a phosphorus-based glass, oxide-based glass, phosphorus-oxynitride-based glass, sulpher-based glass, oxide/sulfide based glass, selenide based glass, gallium based glass, germanium-based glass; ceramic active metal ion conductors, such as lithium beta-alumina, sodium beta-alumina, Li superionic conductor (LISICON), Na superionic conductor (NASICON), and the like; or glass-ceramic active metal ion conductors. Specific examples include LiPON, Li₃PO₄.Li₂S.SiS₂, Li₂S.GeS₂.Ga₂S₃, Li₂O.11Al₂O₃, Na₂O.11Al₂O₃, (Na, Li)_(1+x)Ti_(2−x)Al_(x)(PO₄)₃ (0.6≦x≦0.9) and crystallographically related structures, Na₃Zr₂Si₂PO₁₂, Li₃Zr₂Si₂PO₁₂, Na₅ZrP₃O₁₂, Na₅TiP₃O₁₂, Na₃Fe₂P₃O₁₂, Na₄NbP₃O₁₂, Li₅ZrP₃O₁₂, Li₅TiP₃O₁₂, Li₃Fe₂P₃O₁₂ and Li₄NbP₃O₁₂, and combinations thereof, optionally sintered or melted, may be used. Suitable ceramic ion active metal ion conductors are described, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 4,985,317 to Adachi et al., incorporated by reference herein in its entirety and for all purposes.

A particularly suitable glass-ceramic material for the second layer of the protective composite is a lithium ion conductive glass-ceramic having the following composition: Composition mol % P₂O₅ 26-55% SiO₂  0-15% GeO₂ + TiO₂ 25-50% in which GeO₂  0--50%     TiO₂  0--50% ZrO₂  0-10% M₂O₃  0 < 10% Al₂O₃  0-15% Ga₂O₃  0-15% Li₂O  3-25% and containing a predominant crystalline phase composed of Li_(1+x)(M,Al,Ga)_(x)(Ge_(1−y)Ti_(y))_(2−x)(PO₄)₃ where X≦0.8 and 0≦Y≦1.0 and where M is an element selected from the group consisting of Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm and Yb and/or and Li_(1+x+y)Q_(x)Ti_(2−x)Si_(y)P_(3−y)O₁₂ where 0<X≦0.4 and 0<Y≦0.6, and where Q is Al or Ga. The glass-ceramics are obtained by melting raw materials to a melt, casting the melt to a glass and subjecting the glass to a heat treatment. Such materials are available from OHARA Corporation, Japan and are further described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,702,995, 6,030,909, 6,315,881 and 6,485,622, incorporated herein by reference.

Either layer may also include additional components. For instance, a suitable active metal compatible layer (first layer) may include a polymer component to enhance its properties. For example, polymer-iodine complexes like poly(2-vinylpyridine)-iodine (P2VP-I₂), polyethylene-iodine, or tetraalkylammonium-iodine complexes can react with Li to form a LiI-based film having significantly higher ionic conductivity than that for pure LiI. Also, a suitable first layer may include a material used to facilitate its use, for example, the residue of a wetting layer (e.g., Ag) used to prevent reaction between vapor phase lithium (during deposition) and LiPON when LiPON is used as a first layer material.

In addition, the layers may be formed using a variety of techniques. These include deposition or evaporation (including e-beam evaporation) or thermal spray techniques such as plasma spray of layers of material, such as Li₃N or an ionically conductive glass (e.g., LiPON). Also, as noted above, the active metal electrode adjacent layer may be formed in situ from the non-deleterious reaction of one or more precursors with the active metal electrode. For example, a Li₃N layer may be formed on a Li anode by contacting CuN₃ with the Li anode surface, or Li₃P may be formed on a Li anode by contacting red phosphorus with the Li anode surface.

Such compositions, components and methods for their fabrication are described in U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/418,899, filed Oct. 15, 2002, titled IONICALLY CONDUCTIVE COMPOSITES FOR PROTECTION OF ANODES AND ELECTROLYTES, its corresponding U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/686,189 (Attorney Docket No. PLUSP027), filed Oct. 14, 2003, and titled IONICALLY CONDUCTIVE COMPOSITES FOR PROTECTION OF ACTIVE METAL ANODES, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/731,771 (Attorney Docket No. PLUSP027X1), filed Dec. 5, 2003, and titled IONICALLY CONDUCTIVE COMPOSITES FOR PROTECTION OF ACTIVE METAL ANODES, and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/772,228 (Attorney Docket No. PLUSP039), filed Feb. 3, 2004, and titled IONICALLY CONDUCTIVE MEMBRANES FOR PROTECTION OF ACTIVE METAL ANODES AND BATTERY CELLS. These applications are incorporated by reference herein in their entirety for all purposes.

FIG. 1A illustrates an anode structure incorporating a protective composite membrane in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. The structure 100 includes an active metal electrode 108, e.g., lithium, bonded with a protective composite laminate 102. The protective composite laminate 102 is composed of a first layer 104 of a material that is both ionically conductive and chemically compatible with an active metal electrode material. The first layer, in contact with the active metal, may be composed, in whole or in part, of active metal nitrides, active metal phosphides, active metal halides or active metal phosphorus oxynitride-based glasses. Specific examples include Li₃N, Li₃P, LiI, LiBr, LiCl and LiF. In at least one instance, LiPON, the first material is chemically compatible with oxidizing materials. The thickness of the first material layer is preferably about 0.1 to 5 microns, or 0.2 to 1 micron, for example about 0.25 micron. Another possibility would be the use of Li₅La₃M₂O₁₂ which is claimed to be stable to molten lithium and have an ionic conductivity of about 10⁻⁶ S/cm¹.

These first layer materials may be contacted with the active metal, or they may be formed in situ by contacting lithium (or other active metal) with precursors such as metal nitrides, metal phosphides, metal halides, red phosphorus, iodine and the like. The in situ formation of the first layer may be by way of conversion of the precursors to a lithiated analog, for example, according to reactions of the following type (using P, CuN₃, and PbI₂ precursors as examples):

-   -   1. 3Li+P=Li₃P (reaction of the precursor to form Li-ion         conductor);     -   2(a). 3Li+Cu₃N=Li₃N+3 Cu (reaction to form Li-ion         conductor/metal composite);     -   2(b). 2Li⁺ PbI₂=2 LiI+Pb (reaction to form Li-ion         conductor/metal composite).

First layer composites, which may include electronically conductive metal particles, formed as a result of in situ conversions meet the requirements of a first layer material for a protective composite in accordance with the present invention and are therefore within the scope of the invention.

A second layer 106 of the protective composite is composed of a substantially impervious, ionically conductive and chemically compatible with the first material or precursor, including glassy or amorphous metal ion conductors, such as a phosphorus-based glass, oxide-based glass, phosphorus-oxynitride-based glass, sulpher-based glass, oxide/sulfide based glass, selenide based glass, gallium based glass, germanium-based glass; ceramic active metal ion conductors, such as lithium beta-alumina, sodium beta-alumina, Li superionic conductor (LISICON), Na superionic conductor (NASICON), and the like; or glass-ceramic active metal ion conductors. Specific examples include LiPON, Li₃PO₄.Li₂S.SiS₂, Li₂S.GeS₂.Ga₂S₃, Li₂O.11Al₂O₃, Na₂O.11Al₂O₃, (Na, Li)_(1+x)Ti_(2−x)Al_(x)(PO₄)₃ (0.6≦x≦0.9) and crystallographically related structures, Na₃Zr₂Si₂PO₁₂, Li₃Zr₂Si₂PO₁₂, Na₅ZrP₃O₁₂, Na₅TiP₃O₁₂, Na₃Fe₂P₃O₁₂, Na₄NbP₃O₁₂, Li₅ZrP₃O₁₂, Li₅TiP₃O₁₂, Li₃Fe₂P₃O₁₂ and Li₄NbP₃O₁₂, and combinations thereof, optionally sintered or melted. Suitable ceramic ion active metal ion conductors are described, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 4,985,317 to Adachi et al., incorporated by reference herein in its entirety and for all purposes. Suitable glass-ceramic ion active metal ion conductors are described, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,702,995, 6,030,909, 6,315,881 and 6,485,622, previously incorporated herein by reference and are available from OHARA Corporation, Japan.

The ionic conductivity of the composite is at least 10⁻⁶ S/cm, generally at least at least 10⁻⁵ S/cm to 10⁻⁴ S/cm, and as high as 10⁻³ S/cm or higher. The thickness of the second material layer is preferably about 0.1 to 1000 microns, or, where the ionic conductivity of the second material layer is between about 10⁻⁵ about 10⁻³ S/cm, 10 to 1000 microns, preferably between 1 and 500 micron, and more preferably between 10 and 100 microns, for example 20 microns.

The layers may be formed using a variety of techniques. These include deposition or evaporation (including e-beam evaporation) or thermal spray methods such as vacuum plasma spray of layers of material, such as LiN₃ or an ionically conductive glass. Also, as noted above, the active metal electrode adjacent layer may be formed in situ from the non-deleterious reaction of one or more precursors with the active metal electrode. For example, a LiN₃ layer may be formed on a Li anode by contacting CuN₃ with the Li anode surface, or LiP₃ may be formed on a Li anode by contacting red phosphorus with the Li anode surface.

Also, an approach may be used where a first material and second material are coated with another material such as a transient and/or wetting layer. For example, an OHARA glass ceramic plate is coated with a LiPON layer, followed by a thin silver (Ag) coating. When lithium is evaporated onto this structure, the Ag is converted to Ag—Li and diffuses, at least in part, into the greater mass of deposited lithium, and a protected lithium electrode is created. The thin Ag coating prevents the hot (vapor phase) lithium from contacting and adversely reaction with the LiPON first material layer. After deposition, the solid phase lithium is stable against the LiPON. A multitude of such transient/wetting (e.g., Al, Sn or other Li alloy-forming metal) and first layer material combinations can be used to achieve the desired result.

In addition to protection of the first layer material against reaction with Li, a Li alloy-forming metal film can serve two more purposes. In some cases after formation the first layer material the vacuum needs to be broken in order to transfer this material through the ambient or dry room atmosphere to the other chamber for Li deposition. The metal film can protect the first layer against reaction with components of this atmosphere. In addition, the Li alloy-forming metal can serve as a bonding layer for reaction bonding of Li to the first layer material. When lithium is deposited onto this structure, the Ag is converted to Ag-Li and diffuses, at least in part, into the greater mass of deposited lithium.

In many implementations of the present invention, active metal electrode material (e.g., lithium) will be applied to the first layer material which is residing on the second material (the first material having been previously applied to the second material), as described further with reference to specific embodiments below.

In one example, the where LiPON is used as the first material and an OHARA-type glass-ceramic (as described herein) in used as the second material, the resistivity of LiPON is too large for it to be used in a multi-micron film, but the resistivity of the glass-ceramic is much lower. Thus, a 20-50 micron film of glass-ceramic protected from a Li electrode with about a 0.2 micron film of LiPON can be used.

In addition to the protective composite laminates described above, a protective membrane in accordance with the present invention may alternatively be a functionally graded layer, as shown in FIG. 1B. Through the use of appropriate deposition technology such as RF sputter deposition, electron beam deposition, thermal spray deposition, and or plasma spray deposition, it is possible to use multiple sources to lay down a graded film. In this way, the discrete interface between layers of distinct composition and functional character is replaced by a gradual transition of from one layer to the other. The result, as with the discrete layer composites described above, is a bi-functionally compatible ionically conductive composite 120 stable on one side 114 to lithium or other active metal, and on the other side 116 substantially impervious and stable to the cathode/electrolyte, other battery cell components and preferably to ambient conditions. In this embodiment, the proportion of the first material to the second material in the composite may vary widely based on ionic conductivity and mechanical strength issues, for example. In many, but not all, embodiments the second material will dominate. For example, suitable ratios of first to second materials may be 1-1000 or 1-500, for example about 1 to 200 where the second material has greater strength and ionic conductivity than the first (e.g., 2000 Å of LiPON and 20-30 microns of OHARA glass-ceramic). The transition between materials may occur over any (e.g., relatively short, long or intermediate) distance in the composite. To form a protected anode, lithium is then bonded to the graded membrane on the first component material (stable to active metal) side of the graded composite protective layer, for example as described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/686,189 (Attorney Docket No. PLUSP027), filed Oct. 14, 2003, and titled IONICALLY CONDUCTIVE COMPOSITES FOR PROTECTION OF ACTIVE METAL ANODES, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/731,771 (Attorney Docket No. PLUSP027X1), filed Dec. 5, 2003, and titled IONICALLY CONDUCTIVE COMPOSITES FOR PROTECTION OF ACTIVE METAL ANODES, and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/772,228 (Attorney Docket No. PLUSP039), filed Feb. 3, 2004, and titled IONICALLY CONDUCTIVE MEMBRANES FOR PROTECTION OF ACTIVE METAL ANODES AND BATTERY CELLS, previously incorporated by reference herein.

In other embodiments, it may be possible for the protective membrane to be composed of a single material that is chemically compatible with both the active metal electrode and any solvent, electrolyte, and/or cathode environments, including such environments that are normally highly corrosive to active metals, and at the same time allows efficient ion transport from one side of the membrane to the other to the other at a high level, generally having ionic conductivity, at least 10⁻⁵ S/cm to 10⁻⁴ S/cm, and as high as 10⁻³ S/cm or higher.

Fuel Cell Designs

The protected active metal electrodes described herein enable the construction of novel active metal fuel cells. As noted above, active metals are highly reactive in ambient conditions and can benefit from a barrier layer when used as electrodes. They are generally alkali metals such (e.g., lithium, sodium or potassium), alkaline earth metals (e.g., calcium or magnesium), and/or certain transitional metals (e.g., zinc), and/or alloys of two or more of these. The following active metals may be used: alkali metals (e.g., Li, Na, K), alkaline earth metals (e.g., Ca, Mg, Ba), or binary or ternary alkali metal alloys with Ca, Mg, Sn, Ag, Zn, Bi, Al, Cd, Ga, In. Preferred alloys include lithium aluminum alloys, lithium silicon alloys, lithium tin alloys, lithium silver alloys, and sodium lead alloys (e.g., Na₄Pb). A preferred active metal fuel electrode (anode) is composed of lithium.

One example of such a fuel cell in accordance with the present invention is a lithium fuel cell, as illustrated in FIG. 2. The fuel cell includes an lithium fuel electrode (anode) in the solid state. Alternatively, another active metal, particularly an alkali metal, may be used. The lithium metal electrode can be bonded to a lithium ion conductive membrane according to any of the techniques described herein and in the applications incorporated by reference, as described above, with or without the use of a bond coat such as a thin layer of Ag, Al, Sn or other suitable Li alloy-forming metal, depending upon the technique used. The cell also includes a cathode structure having an electronically conductive component, an ionically conductive component, and a fluid oxidant.

The cathode structure's electronically conductive component is provided adjacent to the protective membrane on the anode and provides electron transport from the anode (via a cathode current collector) and facilitates electroreduction of the cathode oxidant. It may be, for example, a porous metal or alloy, such as porous nickel. The ionically conductive component is generally a fluid electrolyte, and preferably an aqueous electrolyte, for example salt water, or aqueous solutions of LiCl, LiBr, LiI, LiOH, NH₄Cl, NH₄Br, or other suitable electrolyte salts. The fluid oxidant may be air, water or a peroxide or other aqueous solution.

As noted above, in some embodiments, the electronically conductive component may be composed of porous nickel. Still further, the electronically conductive component may be treated with an ionomer, such as per-fluoro-sulfonic acid polymer film (e.g., du Pont NAFION) to expand the range of acceptable electrolytes to those having little or no native ionic conductivity. An additional advantage of ionomers like NAFION is that the salt is chemically bonded to the polymer backbone, and therefore cannot be flushed out, so if a liquid oxidant such as hydrogen peroxide were to flow through the cathode, it would not be necessary to flush the prior electrolyte salt out of the cathode to avoid having salt dissolved in the peroxide solution.

An example of a suitable cathode structure is an air electrode conventionally used in metal (e.g., Zn)/air batteries or low temperature (e.g., PEM) fuel cells.

As the fuel cell operates to generate electricity, the lithium metal of the renewable anode is consumed. The metal is then supplemented with fresh lithium metal, as required, to provide continuous operation for as long as desired. For example, prior to or during operation of the fuel cell, additional lithium may be added to the anode by contacting the existing lithium of the anode with additional lithium having a bond coat, such as a thin layer of Ag or other suitable alloying metal, in an inert environment. The Ag layer reacts with the surface of the existing Li forming Li—Ag alloy. The Li—Al alloy layer serves as a strong reaction bond between the additional Li and the existing lithium. The new Li/Ag alloys to the old thereby supplementing it or “replacing” it as it is depleted in the fuel cell redox reaction with the cathode oxidant. In this way, the renewable lithium anode can be replaced or supplemented through the use of a thin bonding foil such as Ag, Al, or Sn foil, as shown in the figure, as it is depleted.

Like the fuel of the anode, the oxidant of the cathode may be continuously supplemented and the waste products removed by flushing fresh oxidant and optionally electrolyte through the cathode structure. The cathode oxidant can thus be continuously supplied with oxygen from either air or water or from a liquid oxidant such as peroxide. The cell then operates as a fuel cell where the Li⁺ conductive membrane and electronically conductive component of the cathode structure are static, and the Li anode material is continuously replaced as it is depleted, as is the cathode oxidant (e.g., air, water or peroxide) on the other side of the protective membrane.

In another embodiment, depicted in FIG. 3, the lithium (or other active metal) anode could be continuously supplied to the membrane by virtue of it being dissolved in a suitable solvent. For lithium, suitable solvents include hexamethyl phosphoramide (HMPA), liquid ammonia, organic amides, amines, in particular methylamine, and mixtures thereof, and other suitable solvents. Lithium is known to dissolve in HMPA in high concentration to form stable solutions of solvated electrons. In this way, bulk lithium metal can be fed into a constant volume of HMPA, keeping the Li/HMPA solution near or at the solubility limit. As lithium is transported across the protective membrane more lithium metal will dissolve into the HMPA solution, and the cell acts as a true Li/air or Li/water fuel cell. Thus, in this embodiment, lithium metal is continuously supplied to the Li/HMPA solution anode, while air or water (cathode oxidant) is supplied to the cathode structure. The energy density of such a device will be very high since the weight of the passive components are negligible relative to the fuel and air supply.

In a fuel cell, any part of the active metal electrode that is not covered by the protective membrane will generally be sealed off from the corrosive environments, such as by a current collector material (e.g., copper), an o-ring seal, a crimp seal, polymer or epoxy sealant, or combination of these.

In addition, by coupling the Li/water fuel cell as described herein with a PEM H₂/O₂ fuel cell, as illustrated in FIG. 4, hydrogen released from the Li/water fuel cell can be captured and the energy density and fuel efficiency of this system may be further increased.

Conclusion

Although the foregoing invention has been described in some detail for purposes of clarity of understanding, it will be apparent that certain changes and modifications may be practiced within the scope of the invention. It should be noted that there are many alternative ways of implementing both the process and compositions of the present invention. Accordingly, the present embodiments are to be considered as illustrative and not restrictive, and the invention is not to be limited to the details given herein.

All references cited herein are incorporated by reference for all purposes. 

1. A fuel cell, comprising: a renewable active metal anode; a cathode structure comprising a electronically conductive component, an ionically conductive component, and a fluid oxidant; an ionically conductive protective membrane on the first surface of the anode, the membrane comprising, one or more materials configured to provide a first surface chemically compatible with the active metal of the anode in contact with the anode, and a second surface substantially impervious to and chemically compatible with the cathode structure and in contact with the cathode structure.
 2. The cell of claim 1, wherein the ionically conductive protective membrane comprises a composite, the composite comprising, a first material component in contact with the anode that is ionically conductive and chemically compatible with the active metal of the anode; and a second material component in contact with the first material component, the second material being substantially impervious, ionically conductive and chemically compatible with the first material component and the cathode structure.
 3. The cell of claim 1, wherein the ionic conductivity of the protective membrane is at least 10⁻⁵ S/cm.
 4. The cell of claim 1, wherein the cathode oxidant comprises air.
 5. The cell of claim 1, wherein the cathode oxidant comprises water.
 6. The cell of claim 1, wherein the cathode oxidant comprises hydrogen peroxide.
 7. The cell of claim 1, wherein the protective membrane is a composite laminate.
 8. The cell of claim 1, wherein the protective membrane is a graded composite.
 9. The cell of claim 1, wherein the active metal of the anode is lithium or a lithium alloy.
 10. The cell of claim 2, wherein the first component comprises a material selected from the group consisting of active metal nitrides, active metal phosphides, and active metal halides, and active metal phosphorus oxynitride glass.
 11. The cell of claim 2, wherein the first layer comprises a material selected from the group consisting of Li₃N, Li₃P and LiI, LiBr, LiCl, LiF, and LiPON.
 12. The cell of claim 2, wherein the second component comprises a material selected from the group consisting of glassy or amorphous metal ion conductors, ceramic active metal ion conductors, and glass-ceramic active metal ion conductors.
 13. The cell of claim 2, wherein the second component is an ion conductive glass-ceramic having the following composition: Composition mol % P₂O₅ 26-55% SiO₂  0-15% GeO₂ + TiO₂ 25-50% in which GeO₂  0-50%     TiO₂  0-50% ZrO₂  0-10% M₂O₃  0 < 10% Al₂O₃  0-15% Ga₂O₃  0-15% Li₂O  3-25%

and containing a predominant crystalline phase composed of Li_(1+x)(M,Al,Ga)_(x)(Ge_(1−y)Ti_(y))_(2−x)(PO₄)₃ where X≦0.8 and 0≦Y≦1.0, and where M is an element selected from the group consisting of Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Th, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm and Yb and/or and Li_(1+x+y)Q_(x)Ti_(2−x)Si_(y)P_(3−y)O₁₂ where 0<X≦0.4 and 0<Y<0.6, and where Q is Al or Ga.
 14. The cell of claim 1, wherein the anode comprises solid state lithium metal.
 15. The cell of claim 1, wherein the anode comprises lithium metal dissolved in a suitable solvent.
 16. The cell of claim 15, wherein the solvent is selected from the group consisting of hexamethyl phosphoramide (HMPA), ammonia, organic amides, amines and combinations thereof.
 17. The cell of claim 15, wherein the solvent comprises hexamethyl phosphoramide (HMPA).
 18. The cell of claim 15, wherein the solvent comprises methylamine.
 19. The cell of claim 1, wherein the cell is operated such that the anode is supplemented by fresh lithium metal, as required to provide continuous operation for as long as desired.
 20. The cell of claim 14, wherein the anode is supplemented by fresh lithium metal by contacting the existing lithium of the anode with additional lithium having a lithium bonding coat such that the additional lithium bonds to the original lithium.
 21. The cell of claim 20, wherein the bonding coat is Ag or other lithium-alloying metal.
 22. The cell of claim 15, wherein bulk lithium metal is fed to the solution keeping the solution near or at the lithium solubility limit.
 23. The cell of claim 5, further comprising a PEM H₂/O₂ fuel cell to capture hydrogen released in the fuel cell redox reaction. 